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THE WAR IN DARFUR
The war in Darfur is a major armed conflict in the Darfur region of Sudan. It began in February 2003 when rebel groups began fighting against the government of Sudan, which they accused of oppressing the non-Arab southern region of the country.
The government responded to these attacks by carrying out a campaign of violent attacks against both militants and civilians. One side of the conflict is mainly composed of the Sudanese military, police and the Janjaweed, a Sudanese militia group. The other side is made up of rebel groups, notably the SLM (Sudan Liberation Movement) and the JEM (Justice and Equality Movement). Members of these rebel groups are recruited primarily from non-Arab Muslim tribes.
There are several other explanations for the origins of the present conflict. One explanation involves the land disputes between semi-nomadic livestock herders and those who practise crop farming. Water access has also been identified as a major source of the conflict.
The Sudanese government and the JEM signed a ceasefire agreement in February 2010, with a tentative agreement to pursue peace. The JEM had the most to gain from the talks and could see independence, much like South Sudan. However, talks were disrupted by accusations that the Sudanese army launched raids and air strikes against a village, violating the peace agreement. The JEM, the largest rebel group in Darfur, vowed to boycott negotiations.
After many years of sporadic conflict, a comprehensive peace agreement was signed on 31 August 2020 between the Sudanese authorities and several rebel factions to end armed hostilities.
Sudan is located on the continent of Africa.
Two other countries that would be affected by the Darfur conflict are Chad and Libya.
Two rebel groups that are fighting against the Islamist national government in Sudan are the Sudan Liberation Army and the Justice and Equality Movement.
The conflict in Darfur is primarily an ethnic conflict between Arab Muslims and non-Arab Muslims of the South. This ethnic divide, rather than religious differences, is at the core of the fighting. The clash is based more on racial and cultural identities than on opposing religious beliefs.
Another reason why religion plays a limited role is that non-Muslims are not involved in the conflict. Both sides of the conflict belong to the Muslim faith, meaning that the violence is not driven by interfaith tensions but rather by issues within the same religious community.
It is also important to note that religion itself does not appear to be a radical source of division. Since both groups share the same faith, religion is not the main factor creating hostility between them. The divisions are more political, economic, and ethnic in nature.
In fact, most people on both sides of the conflict are Sunni Muslims, highlighting the shared religious identity between the opposing groups. This similarity suggests that the conflict is not fueled by differing religious doctrines or sects but by other underlying issues.
However, even though religion is not the main cause, religion is used by political parties to gain support. Political leaders may invoke religious rhetoric or symbols to rally followers or justify their actions, showing how religion can still be exploited as a tool for political power in the conflict.
Lastly, one of the problems with the Darfur conflict is that it does not follow the classic civil war lines of government versus rebels. The conflict involves shifting alliances, ethnic militias, and complex motives that go beyond a simple government-versus-opposition narrative. This complexity further reduces the role of religion as a clear dividing factor in the war.
South Sudan gained independence from Sudan in July 2011, following the outcome of a 2005 peace deal that ended Africa’s longest-running civil war. This peace agreement, known as the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), was a crucial turning point, bringing an end to more than two decades of violent conflict between the northern and southern regions of Sudan. The CPA laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of South Sudan as an independent state.
In January 2011, an overwhelming majority of South Sudanese people voted in a referendum to secede from Sudan and form their own nation. This vote was a pivotal moment in history, as it led to the establishment of Africa’s first new country since Eritrea split from Ethiopia in 1993. The referendum was seen as a direct result of the peace deal and the desire of the South Sudanese to have self-determination and governance free from the control of the northern Sudanese government.
The central government of Sudan, based in the northern capital of Khartoum, had long imposed military force to enforce Sharia law on all Sudanese citizens. This imposition of Sharia law was a significant point of contention, especially for the Southern Sudanese people, many of whom followed Christianity or traditional African religions. The harsh policies and religious impositions from the north fueled deep resentment and divisions between the northern and southern regions.
In response to the oppressive policies of the northern government, the Southern Sudanese people rebelled, leading to decades of conflict. Their fight for independence from Khartoum’s rule ultimately resulted in the creation of South Sudan. The rebellion was driven by the South Sudanese people’s desire for political, cultural, and religious autonomy, and their refusal to be governed by laws that they saw as incompatible with their values and beliefs. This resistance paved the way for the establishment of South Sudan as a sovereign nation.
Religious organisations may struggle to resolve conflict because they may be seen as favouring one side. In conflicts where groups are divided along religious or ethnic lines, a religious organisation that supports one faction may be perceived as biased. This perception undermines their credibility and ability to act as a neutral mediator, making it more difficult for them to gain trust from all parties involved.
Another challenge religious organisations face is that they seldom have influence over politicians. Since politicians often control key decision-making in conflicts, religious organisations with limited political power can find it hard to bring about change. Their efforts may be sidelined or ignored by governments and political leaders who hold the real power in shaping peace agreements.
Limited funding is also a significant barrier for religious organisations. Most of their resources come from public donations, which can be unpredictable and insufficient. Without access to larger financial resources or state backing, religious organisations often struggle to finance their peace efforts, humanitarian aid, or other necessary activities to support long-term conflict resolution.
Additionally, there may be more than one organisation involved in brokering peace. Multiple groups, each with its own methods or beliefs, can create confusion and lack of unity. This fragmentation can make it harder to come to a cohesive solution, and in some cases, it can even deepen divisions and mistrust between the conflicting parties.
This can escalate the conflict. When various religious organisations are involved, it can lead to conflicting messages or strategies. Instead of creating a unified front to negotiate peace, the presence of multiple actors can cause further tension, complicating the situation and making it more difficult to resolve.
Lastly, religious organisations do not have a mechanism to enforce agreements, such as an army or police force. While they can facilitate peace talks and advocate for reconciliation, they cannot compel parties to adhere to agreements. Without the power to enforce terms, agreements reached through religious mediation are often not upheld, which can lead to the continuation of the conflict.
According to the ‘Just wars’ doctrine, certain circumstances allow for war to be considered sanctioned by God. One of these circumstances is when a state decides that people of a neighbouring state must convert to ‘true religion’, commonly known as evangelical wars. In this case, the war is seen as justified because the state believes it is fulfilling a divine mission to spread or enforce religious beliefs.
Another condition under which a war may be deemed just is when military might and state power are seen as reflections of the glory of God. This justification allows for conquering other states for the glory of God. The war is perceived not only as a military action but also as an act of fulfilling a higher religious purpose, with victory being interpreted as God’s will and approval.
Wars of self-defence are also seen as just under the doctrine. When a state or a group is under attack or threatened, defending itself against aggression is seen as a righteous cause. This self-defensive action is considered morally permissible because it is protecting the people, land, and values that the state holds dear.
Lastly, wars of retaliation, where a state or group fights to avenge an offence that has been committed against their religion, are considered just. If an act of violence or injustice has been inflicted upon a religious group, seeking to retaliate and restore balance can be justified as part of the righteous pursuit of justice for the faith.
1: CHRISTIANITY
One of the key teachings of Christianity is ‘Love thy neighbour as you love yourself.’ This instruction encourages selflessness and promotes the idea of treating everyone equally, irrespective of differences. When individuals practice this teaching, they put others’ needs on equal footing with their own, which helps to diminish feelings of division and fosters an environment of understanding and peace. As a result, this teaching actively works towards reducing conflict by encouraging believers to act with kindness and empathy toward one another.
Another important Christian teaching is ‘Do unto others what you like to be done unto you,’ which is often referred to as the Golden Rule. This principle stresses mutual respect and encourages Christians to treat others in the same way they would like to be treated. When people embrace this rule, it promotes fairness and kindness, which helps to avoid misunderstandings and resolve conflicts in a peaceful manner. By practicing the Golden Rule, individuals are reminded to always consider the perspectives and feelings of others, thereby reducing the chances of unnecessary conflict.
A third teaching that plays a role in preventing conflict is the commandment ‘Thou shalt not kill.’ This commandment emphasizes the sanctity and sacredness of human life, making it clear that life is precious and should be respected at all costs. It forbids taking another person’s life, which ultimately discourages violence and aggression. By upholding this principle, Christians are guided to seek non-violent resolutions to conflicts, valuing life and promoting peace within their communities.
2 : BUDDHISM
Buddhism promotes the concept of shared humanness, which emphasizes unselfishness and compassion toward all living beings. It encourages practitioners to understand that everyone experiences similar emotions, challenges, and desires, such as the pursuit of happiness and the avoidance of suffering. By acknowledging this shared humanity, Buddhists are reminded to act with kindness and to resolve conflicts through empathy, rather than through aggression or divisiveness. This sense of unselfishness helps to cultivate peace and understanding, minimizing the potential for conflict.
One of the central aspirations in Buddhism is to gain happiness and avoid suffering for all living things. This principle is rooted in the understanding that all beings deserve to live free from harm, and it fosters a sense of responsibility among Buddhists to reduce suffering wherever possible. By focusing on alleviating suffering, Buddhism encourages peaceful solutions to conflicts, advocating for harmony and care in all interactions.
A significant credo of Buddhism is ‘There must be no harm to living creatures, including humans.’ This principle, known as Ahimsa or non-violence, guides Buddhists to avoid causing harm to others. It serves as a powerful deterrent against violence and encourages peaceful coexistence. Because harming others is fundamentally against the teachings of Buddhism, this credo helps to resolve conflicts peacefully, ensuring that Buddhists treat all living beings with respect and compassion.
Unlike some other religions, Buddhism has never waged war to spread its teachings, as doing so would violate its core values, particularly the respect for human rights. Buddhism holds that true change comes through peaceful means, such as offering guidance, teaching, and service, rather than through force. This commitment to non-violence means that Buddhists avoid engaging in war or violent actions to promote their faith, choosing instead to practice peace and understanding as tools for conflict resolution.
Buddhism also encourages the propagation of its teachings through service to humanity, such as through establishing clinics, schools, and other charitable activities. This focus on helping others provides a way to resolve conflicts by improving the welfare of individuals and communities. When people work together for the common good, particularly in acts of charity and mutual support, it fosters cooperation and understanding, reducing the likelihood of conflict.
Lastly, Buddhism allows freedom of choice in social relationships. This principle means that individuals are free to practice rituals of other religions if they choose, while still maintaining their personal Buddhist beliefs. By respecting the rights of others to follow different faiths, Buddhism encourages tolerance and peace among diverse religious groups. It is through this tolerance that conflict is avoided, as Buddhists accept the diversity of beliefs in the world and seek peaceful coexistence with all people.
RELIGION AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Religion is not only about belief, but also about its capacity to improve human well-being. This understanding emphasizes that religion can play an essential role in shaping an individual’s values and actions, leading to a more compassionate and just society. At the heart of this belief lies the notion that human rights are integral to an individual’s freedom and dignity.
According to the Human Rights Council, “To ensure, in particular, the right of all persons to worship or assemble in connection with a religious belief.” This statement highlights the fundamental importance of religious freedom, allowing people to express their beliefs without fear of oppression or discrimination. It reinforces the idea that every person should have the right to practice their religion freely and assemble with others who share similar beliefs, ensuring their rights are protected within the broader framework of human rights.
[Source: https://www.openglobalrights.org]
Human Right: Freedom from Discrimination
Responsibilities:
You have the responsibility to uphold this right both for yourself and for others. This means that you should always stand up for equality and fairness, ensuring that no one is treated unfairly because of their identity or beliefs.You must not discriminate against others on the basis of race, religion, sex, language or political opinion. By avoiding discriminatory behaviour, you help create a society where everyone’s dignity is respected and protected.
Human Right: The Right to Marriage and Family
Responsibilities:
You have the responsibility to support and promote family life, especially your own. This involves contributing to the well-being, unity, and stability of your family through care, respect, and love.You have the responsibility not to act in any way that would lead to the break-down of a family. This means avoiding actions or behaviour that could harm family relationships or weaken the family structure.
Human Right: The Right to Education
Responsibilities:
You have the responsibility to attend classes. This means making sure you are present and engaged in your learning opportunities as provided by your school or institution.You have the responsibility to be a diligent learner/student doing the work and study required. This involves putting in effort, completing assignments, and preparing for assessments to gain the full benefit of your education.
Example 1: Christianity
The teaching “Women submit to your husband just as the church submits to Christ” is sometimes misused as a justification to control women. Some people interpret this verse to mean that women must always be under the authority of their husbands, which takes away their right to make independent decisions. This interpretation can lead to women feeling powerless in their own homes and being treated as less equal, even though this was not the original intention of the teaching. This situation becomes a violation of their freedom of expression, because it prevents women from freely voicing their opinions and making choices for themselves.
In some families, women are not involved in family meetings as a way of submitting to man. By excluding women from important family discussions, their role and input are undervalued. This exclusion reinforces gender inequality and denies women the right to participate in decisions that directly affect them and their families.
Another example of how this teaching is misused is when people believe that women must obey their husbands unconditionally. This idea gives husbands total control over their wives, expecting them to follow every instruction without question. Such an expectation ignores women’s personal rights and dignity, limiting their ability to challenge unfair treatment or make choices for their own wellbeing.
Example 2: African Traditional Religion
In many African communities, there is a culture of lobola, which is the practice of paying a bride price. While lobola is traditionally meant to show respect and unite families, it can be abused by men who treat women as their subjects or personal property. Some men believe that because they paid lobola, they now have ownership over their wives, which leads to controlling behavior and limits the women’s freedom and rights within the marriage.
Another way women’s rights are denied is when men forbid them from participating in any traditional rituals. In some cultures, women are excluded from certain ceremonies or religious practices simply because of their gender. This exclusion prevents women from fully taking part in their cultural and spiritual traditions, denying them equality and the opportunity to practice their faith freely.
Karuna
Karuna is an organization inspired by Buddhist values and committed to improving human rights through its work in India and Nepal. The organization’s mission is to end caste-based discrimination, poverty, and inequality, recognizing the inherent dignity and equality of all people regardless of their caste or background.
A key focus of Karuna’s work is empowering individuals by providing education, promoting dignified livelihoods, and supporting gender equality. Through these initiatives, Karuna helps people build better lives and ensures that they have access to opportunities that were previously denied to them.
Since its establishment in 1980, Karuna and its supporters have enabled many people to overcome caste discrimination. By challenging oppressive systems and providing practical support, the organization plays an important role in transforming communities and contributing to a more just and equal society.
Gift of the Givers Foundation
The Gift of the Givers Foundation is recognized as the largest disaster response NGO of African origin on the African continent. It has become a crucial player in responding to emergencies and disasters, offering life-saving assistance to people in need across the region.
The foundation provides life-saving aid in the form of search and rescue teams, medical personnel, medical equipment, and medical supplies, ensuring that affected communities receive immediate and effective relief. This rapid response helps save lives and restore hope in times of crisis.
Additionally, the foundation distributes medicine, vaccines, and anti-malarial medication to vulnerable populations. By addressing health emergencies and preventing disease outbreaks, it supports the basic human right to health care.
At the core of its mission, the Gift of the Givers Foundation aims to make a practical difference to people’s lives regardless of their race, creed, or religion. This commitment reflects its dedication to equality, compassion, and solidarity with all human beings.
Salvation Army
The Salvation Army is a Christian organization that provides a number of practical ways to help people, particularly those who are poor, homeless, or neglected. It seeks to uplift individuals by addressing both their physical and emotional needs.
One of the Salvation Army’s important services is providing shelter for the homeless and care for orphaned children. Through its shelters, the organization offers safety, warmth, and a place of refuge for those without homes.
Beyond basic shelter, the organization also provides mental and emotional stimulation, love, and care for these children. This holistic approach ensures that children feel supported, valued, and nurtured during difficult times.
Children under the Salvation Army’s care are fed, clothed, and given the opportunity to enjoy their childhood. The organization aims to create a sense of normalcy and joy, helping children experience the innocence and happiness of childhood despite their circumstances.
Whenever possible, the Salvation Army works to re-unite children with their biological parents, recognizing the importance of family connections in a child’s development. If reunification is not possible, the organization encourages adoption or foster care to ensure that every child has the chance to grow up in a loving and stable family environment.
Closing down the places of worship during the Covid-19 lockdown was a measure to prevent the spread of infectious disease. In the face of a global pandemic, preventing large gatherings where the virus could easily spread was a critical action taken by the government to protect the population from further infection. The decision was made in response to an urgent public health crisis and was aimed at reducing the risk of transmission.
Protecting the public’s health is directly linked to protecting human rights, as all people have the right to life. By closing places of worship and restricting gatherings, the government prioritized saving lives over allowing unrestricted religious practices. The right to life is a fundamental human right, and the government’s actions were intended to ensure the safety of every individual, particularly those at higher risk of contracting the virus.
International human rights law guarantees everyone the right to the highest attainable standard of health. This law obligates governments to take appropriate measures to protect the well-being of their citizens. The Covid-19 pandemic presented a significant public health threat, and the government’s decision to implement lockdown measures, including the closure of religious spaces, was in line with these international obligations, aiming to prevent further harm.
Additionally, human rights law obligates governments to take steps to prevent threats to public health. In this case, the closure of places of worship was part of a broader public health strategy to reduce transmission of the virus. Governments are tasked with taking proactive steps during health emergencies, and this action was consistent with their responsibility to protect the population from widespread disease.
Human rights law also recognizes that, in the context of serious public health threats, restrictions on some rights can be justified. This is an essential principle of international human rights, which allows for the temporary limitation of certain freedoms to protect the public. The closure of places of worship was a temporary measure, justified by the need to safeguard the health and safety of the entire population during a global health crisis.
All gatherings were banned during the lockdown, including sports, social, and entertainment events. This approach ensured that the restrictions were not biased toward religious groups but applied equally to all sectors of society. By applying the same rules to all gatherings, the government demonstrated that the aim was not to violate religious freedom but to limit all forms of social interaction to prevent the spread of Covid-19.
Therefore, this proves that the government’s actions during the lockdown were not a violation of religious freedom. Rather, they were a necessary, temporary measure aimed at protecting public health. The government acted in accordance with international human rights principles, ensuring that the health and safety of the population took precedence during the pandemic.
One reason to disagree with the statement is that South Africa is a secular state, which means that all religions are equal before the law. For example, the South African Constitution does not declare any official religion, ensuring that Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, and smaller faiths like the Baháʼí Faith all have equal legal standing. This legal neutrality helps protect minority religions from discrimination under the law.
Another reason is that there are interreligious organisations which embrace all religions, big and small. For example, the South African Council of Churches and the National Religious Leaders Forum include leaders from various faith backgrounds. These organisations provide platforms where minority religions can share their views alongside larger faith groups, helping foster dialogue and mutual respect.
A further reason is that the Constitution promotes freedom of religion in South Africa. Section 15 of the Constitution guarantees everyone the right to practice their religion freely. For instance, Muslim learners are allowed to wear headscarves at school, and Jewish workers can take leave on holy days like Yom Kippur. This protection ensures that people from minority religions can observe their faith without fear of persecution.
On the other hand, it can be argued that minority religions are disadvantaged because a minority religion’s voice would not be given the same status as that of the majority religions. For example, during national events or public debates, Christian perspectives may dominate the conversation, while smaller religions like Rastafarianism or Buddhism receive little to no representation. This unequal platform can make it harder for minority faiths to influence social or political decisions.
Another challenge is that followers of minority religions might feel intimidated by the majority. For example, a Hindu student in a predominantly Christian school might feel uncomfortable discussing their religious festivals if peers make fun of unfamiliar practices. This social pressure can discourage individuals from expressing their beliefs openly.
Lastly, minority religions face a practical disadvantage because their religious holidays are not public holidays. For instance, while Christians enjoy national public holidays for Christmas and Good Friday, Muslims have to apply for leave to celebrate Eid, and Hindus for Diwali. This lack of formal recognition makes it harder for minority religious groups to observe their sacred days without sacrificing work or school obligations.
One reason for the global rise in religious intolerance is that most countries are religiously saturated, leading missionary religions to compete for new converts. This competition creates tension, as different religious groups feel the need to protect their followers or expand their influence. As a result, there is often mistrust, rivalry, and sometimes hostility between these groups, making peaceful coexistence harder to achieve.
Another significant factor is the role of social media in spreading false information and sensational stories about religions. Online platforms allow misinformation to spread quickly and widely, often without verification or accountability. Sensationalism—where shocking or controversial stories go viral—further fuels intolerance. Many of these stories are either not factually accurate or deliberately distorted to provoke strong reactions, including anger or hatred toward certain religious groups. The rapid sharing of such misleading content deepens misunderstandings and reinforces negative stereotypes.
Additionally, politicians in some regions are increasingly using religious intolerance as a tool to boost their support base. By exploiting religious divisions and blaming specific faith groups for societal problems, they gain popularity among certain segments of the population. This political strategy encourages discrimination and hostility rather than fostering inclusivity and respect for diversity.
BIAS AGAINST RELIGION?
In a research study at US universities, it was found that Christian students made up a very small minority in their science faculties. One potential explanation is that science departments/faculties have a bias against Christian students, which can discourage and actively prevent Christian students from becoming scientists.
This study, conducted at science faculties at two university campuses, found that a biology professor rated a Christian student who went on a mission trip with his church group, as ‘less employable, less competent, and less likeable’ than students who did not reveal their Christian identity. Bias against Christians in the field of science may be restricted to a specific type of Christianity that scientists called fundamentalist and/or evangelic.
[Adapted from https://www.USAID.religion//Journals.plos.org.]
RELIGION IN THE MEDIA
If you’ve felt that there’s been increased discussion of religion in the British media in recent years, a ten-year study of various media shows that you’re right. Coverage of popular religion, Christianity and public life, Islam and other religions, and atheism and secularism has all gone up since the attacks on the US Twin Towers on 9/11.
This is not restricted to news coverage, but is also evident in sports, entertainment and advertising. The single largest growth has been in the coverage of Islam and it is overwhelmingly negative: Islam is presented as ‘a problem’. But coverage of Christianity is also high. Why should this be, when over this same period church attendance and orthodox Christian belief have declined?
Religion is still reflected in the language of popular culture and Christianity continues to be represented as part of national heritage and the British landscape. In a nation which is increasingly religiously illiterate as a result of declining participation, the media are more important than ever for informing the public about religious matters.
[Source: https://www.religionandsociety.org.uk/publications/journal articles]
According to SOURCE A, Christian students are underrepresented in science faculties because science faculties and professors are biased against Christian students, which discourages them from studying science.
One effect of bias against religion at universities is that students may conceal their religious identity to avoid victimisation. Because they fear being judged as “less employable, less competent, and less likeable,” they might choose not to disclose their faith in order to protect themselves from discrimination.
Another possible effect is that it can cause students to denounce their religions. If students feel that their religious beliefs make them targets of prejudice, they may distance themselves from their faith to fit into academic environments or avoid negative perceptions.
Lastly, the community might lose capable scientists. When bias discourages Christian students from pursuing science, universities and the wider scientific community may miss out on talented individuals who could have contributed valuable skills and insights.
Source A is not reliable because the research was done at two universities only. It is a very small sample, which means that the findings cannot be generalized to all universities or science faculties. The limited scope reduces the reliability and representativeness of the study’s conclusions.
Another factor that lowers the reliability of Source A is that the research was restricted only to Christianity. By focusing exclusively on Christian students, the study ignores the experiences of students from other religions who may also face bias in science faculties, making the results incomplete.
In contrast, Source B is reliable because the research study was done over ten years in various media. The long duration and diverse range of media outlets increase the reliability of the findings, as they are based on more comprehensive and varied data.
Additionally, the research in Source B was done in different religions and on secular worldviews, making it more inclusive and balanced. By covering multiple faiths and non-religious perspectives, the study offers a broader and more accurate reflection of how religion is represented in the media.
One reason is that religion is still represented in the language of popular culture in England. Even though fewer people are attending church, religious ideas, symbols, and references continue to be part of everyday expressions, traditions, and cultural practices in British society.
Another reason is that Christianity continues to be represented as part of British heritage. The media portrays Christianity as an important aspect of national identity, history, and cultural landmarks, keeping it visible despite the decline in personal religious observance.
A further reason is that media is an important religious source of information to the public. With fewer people actively participating in religious institutions, many rely on the media to learn about religious beliefs, practices, and issues, making media coverage of religion more necessary and influential.
Lastly, the attacks on the US Twin Towers on 9/11 led to more interest in religions, and therefore more media coverage. These events sparked global conversations about religion, terrorism, and interfaith relations, causing the media to increase its focus on religious topics to meet public curiosity and concern.
One reason is that Islam is presented as terrorist or as a problem. The media often focuses on stories that portray Islam in a negative or threatening way, which increases attention and coverage of the religion.
Another reason is that Islam was blamed for the attacks on the US Twin Towers on 9/11. These attacks brought Islam into the global spotlight, leading to a surge in media interest and coverage about the religion and its followers.
Additionally, negative reporting of Islam is overwhelming. Much of the media coverage tends to highlight conflicts, extremism, or controversies related to Islam, which adds to the amount of reporting about it.
Lastly, people want to know more about Islam, as it is a foreign religion. For many audiences, Islam may be unfamiliar or misunderstood, so the media provides more information to satisfy public curiosity and interest.
YES
The media can help because the media provides religious information for society. Even though fewer people are participating in religious practices, they can still learn about different religions through news reports, documentaries, and programs that focus on faith and belief systems. For example, television channels often air religious documentaries, news segments cover religious festivals like Eid or Diwali, and online platforms publish articles explaining different belief systems.
Another reason is that through media, people are able to understand the dynamics and politics of religion. Media coverage can explain how religion influences culture, politics, and global issues, helping people gain deeper insights into religious affairs.
Lastly, the media report on religious events as they happen. This ensures that society stays informed about important religious developments, festivals, conflicts, or achievements happening both locally and globally. For example, when the Pope visits another country, international news covers his speeches and activities live. This allows even those far from religious institutions to follow major religious milestones and global faith-related developments.
NO
On the other hand, some argue that the media cannot help because religious coverage is biased, and society is misinformed. Instead of providing balanced views, media outlets may promote certain narratives or stereotypes about particular religions. For example, some news outlets may portray certain religions, like Islam, mostly in relation to terrorism, without highlighting peaceful practices or diversity within the faith. This leads to incomplete and misleading representations.
Also, the media exaggerates the information. Sensational headlines and dramatic reporting can distort the reality of religious issues, leading to misunderstanding or fear among the public. Sensational headlines such as “Religious Leader Sparks Outrage” might distort what actually happened, focusing on controversy to attract viewers rather than accuracy. This can create unnecessary fear or division among audiences.
Furthermore, media reports from a liberal perspective. This may clash with traditional or conservative religious viewpoints, causing friction and misrepresentation of religious values. For instance, coverage that supports progressive values may criticize conservative religious practices, making traditional believers feel marginalized or misrepresented.
Finally, mainly negative coverage of religions is given. When the majority of media stories focus on conflict, extremism, or scandal within religions, it creates a one-sided image that reinforces prejudice rather than understanding. An example is how reports about scandals in religious institutions often dominate headlines, while positive religious initiatives, like charity work or peacebuilding efforts, receive less attention. This imbalance reinforces negative stereotypes about religion as a whole.
Religious organisations can prevent negative media coverage by ensuring that their members follow protocol. For example, religious leaders can establish clear guidelines for how members should behave during public events or protests, minimizing the chances of inappropriate actions that could be misrepresented in the media.
Another important step is that they must have a spokesperson who will deal with media issues. Appointing a trained, articulate spokesperson ensures that the organization speaks with one clear, official voice. For instance, during a controversy or misunderstanding, a spokesperson can issue press statements or give interviews that accurately represent the group’s beliefs and intentions.
Additionally, members need to display a high level of discipline and be accountable. If all members act responsibly—such as avoiding hate speech or illegal activities—the media will have fewer opportunities to highlight negative stories. For example, a religious youth group that engages in volunteer work rather than disruptive protests builds a positive public image.
Furthermore, their conduct and positive use of the media will serve to counteract any negative reporting. By actively sharing stories of their charity work, community projects, and interfaith dialogue efforts on social media and news outlets, religious groups can shape their narrative. For instance, posting videos of feeding programs or disaster relief work shows the religion’s positive impact on society.
Finally, if there is negative reporting, they can use the media to set the record straight. This could involve holding a press conference, releasing a factual statement, or writing opinion pieces to correct misconceptions. For example, if a false report links a religious group to violence, leaders can quickly clarify their peaceful stance through official channels, reducing the spread of misinformation.
During the Covid-19 pandemic, the media became a vital tool for religious organisations to continue their activities despite restrictions on gatherings. Many religious services and conferences moved online, using social media platforms and virtual meeting tools to reach their followers. This allowed religious leaders to preach, conduct ceremonies, and host important faith events without needing a physical venue. For example, many churches streamed their Sunday services on Facebook Live, while global religious conferences were held through Zoom or YouTube, enabling participation from members around the world from the safety of their homes.
In addition to services, religious leaders used media platforms to offer emotional and spiritual support, especially to bereaved families who lost loved ones during the pandemic. Through phone calls, WhatsApp messages, and video calls, clergy members provided counselling and comfort to those who were grieving, ensuring that no one felt abandoned during a difficult time.
For example, pastors arranged video prayer sessions with families to pray for their departed relatives when funerals were restricted.Religious organisations also held virtual meetings to maintain community interaction. These included Bible study groups, prayer meetings, and youth gatherings, all conducted online to foster a sense of togetherness even when people were physically apart.
For example, youth groups used Google Meet to continue their weekly discussions, while prayer circles met via WhatsApp group calls to pray together.However, a negative outcome was observed when restrictions were lifted: attendance at physical religious gatherings remained low. Many people had grown used to worshiping privately or virtually, and others were still afraid of being in crowds, leading to reduced participation in communal worship.
For instance, some churches reported that even after reopening, only half of their usual congregants returned to in-person services.Religious schools also adapted by moving their classes online, using educational platforms to continue religious education for students during school closures. This helped ensure that children’s religious learning continued despite disruptions in formal schooling.
For example, Islamic schools delivered Quran lessons over Zoom, while Catholic schools uploaded recorded lessons on YouTube for students to watch at home.Moreover, religious leaders used the media to support public health efforts by reinforcing government Covid-19 protocols. They encouraged their followers to follow health guidelines such as wearing masks, practicing social distancing, and sanitising hands, and these messages were widely reported in the media.
For example, television news highlighted church leaders reminding congregants to comply with safety measures during televised sermons.Lastly, the media provided a platform for religious leaders to promote vaccination against Covid-19. By sharing information and leading by example, they aimed to increase vaccine acceptance among their communities.
For instance, some priests and imams publicly shared photos of themselves getting vaccinated to encourage hesitant members to follow suit.Despite the widespread use of media, one of the major challenges was that many people could not afford access to social media or lacked the necessary devices and internet connection. This digital divide meant that poorer or rural communities were excluded from online religious activities, leaving them without access to the spiritual support that others received.
For instance, families in low-income areas could not join virtual services because they did not own smartphones or have enough data to stream videos.In conclusion, the media played a multifaceted role during the Covid-19 pandemic by enabling religious practices, spreading health messages, and keeping faith communities connected, although challenges like limited access and reduced in-person participation persisted.
RELIGION AND CONFLICT
Conflict is a reality of life. Religion has sometimes been a part of the problem, but the true intention of religion has always been to prevent conflict.
Over time, religions have developed many mechanisms to contribute to peace and prevent conflict.
CHRISTIANITY
Christianity promotes peace through several important teachings. One of the central teachings is “Love your neighbour as you love yourself.” This instruction encourages believers to show care, respect, and compassion to others, just as they would wish to receive kindness and respect themselves. By loving others equally, conflicts can be avoided and peaceful relationships maintained.
Another teaching that encourages peace is “Blessed are the peacemakers.” This beatitude, from the teachings of Jesus, highlights the special role of people who actively work to bring peace in situations of conflict. It affirms that those who make efforts to reconcile differences are fulfilling God’s will and are rewarded for fostering peace.
Christianity also teaches the principle “Do unto others as you would want them to do to you.” This golden rule guides believers to treat others fairly, with kindness and respect, just as they would hope to be treated. By following this rule, Christians can help prevent harmful actions and promote peaceful interactions in society.
BUDDHISM
In Buddhism, peace is promoted through the belief that “Everything a person does shall be auspicious.” This teaching encourages individuals to perform good, positive actions that bring blessings and harmony to themselves and others. By focusing on auspicious deeds, a person avoids harmful behavior that could lead to conflict.
A key part of Buddhist teaching is “Right action and Right thought: emphasis on virtuous action will prevent conflict, as one will never offend other people.” This principle, part of the Noble Eightfold Path, teaches that acting and thinking in morally good ways leads to peaceful outcomes. If a person always acts kindly and thinks positively, they will not provoke others or create hostility, thus avoiding conflict altogether.
Additionally, Buddhism teaches that “one should not be kind only towards those you know and love, but also towards those who are strangers to you.” This teaching broadens the idea of compassion to include all people, not just close friends or family. By showing kindness even to strangers, Buddhists contribute to building a peaceful and caring society.
ISLAM
Islam encourages peace through teachings that guide believers to resolve conflicts and promote forgiveness. One teaching states, “If there is conflict between two parties of Believers, then mediate to bring about peace.” This shows that Muslims are encouraged to act as peacemakers, helping others to reconcile and find peaceful solutions when disagreements arise within the community.
Another important teaching in Islam is that “Forgiveness is far greater than revenge.” This encourages believers to let go of anger and the desire for retaliation when wronged, and instead choose forgiveness, which leads to healing and peaceful relationships. Forgiveness helps to end cycles of violence and hatred.
Muslims also believe in striving for an ideal society, expressed in the teaching that “Muslims believe in the ideal society where there is justice, peace and love.” This vision motivates Muslims to work towards a community where fairness, peaceful coexistence, and compassion guide all interactions, reducing the chances of conflict.
AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION (ATR)
In African Traditional Religion (ATR), peace is promoted through the principle of “Ubuntu,” which teaches that “no harm must be done to other people.” Ubuntu emphasizes the interconnectedness of all people and the idea that harming another person harms the whole community. By encouraging kindness and care for others, this principle fosters peace and harmony within the community.
Conflict resolution in ATR also involves spiritual practices, as seen in the teaching that “Conflict is resolved by invocation to the ancestors.” When disputes arise, people seek guidance from the ancestors through rituals and prayers, believing that the ancestors will help bring about reconciliation and peace.
Furthermore, ATR teaches that “traditional/family leaders should be consulted to find a solution.” In times of conflict, respected elders and leaders play a key role in mediating disputes and providing wise counsel. By turning to community leaders for help, people are encouraged to resolve conflicts peacefully and maintain social harmony.
Question
Name the areas of conflict in Africa.
One of the areas of conflict in Africa is Nigeria. This country has been affected by violent clashes that are influenced by both religious and political factors.
Question
Name the parties involved in the conflict.
In the conflict in Nigeria, the warring parties are the Nigerian government and the Muslim fundamentalist group Boko Haram. Boko Haram is an extremist organization that seeks to impose its strict interpretation of Islamic law in the region, while the government fights to maintain national security and protect its citizens from terrorist attacks.
Question
Discuss the causes of the conflict you named above.
The conflict in Nigeria is deeply rooted in religious, political, and social factors that have allowed the rise of Boko Haram. One critical cause is the very ideology represented in the name “Boko Haram,” which translates to “anti-West” or “Western education is forbidden.” This ideology reflects a rejection of Western influence, including education, politics, and culture. By opposing Western systems, Boko Haram promotes an extremist worldview that creates hostility towards the government and any institutions perceived as Westernized, fueling conflict between the group and the state.
Another major cause is Boko Haram’s goal to establish an Islamic state in northern Nigeria. This aim threatens Nigeria’s balance, since the country’s population is almost equally divided between Muslims and Christians. Christians fear that the creation of an Islamic state would erode their rights, religious freedom, and political influence, leading to deep mistrust and increased sectarian tension. This fear contributes to polarization and clashes between religious communities.
The conflict is not only between different religious groups; it also exists within the Muslim community. Many Muslims are concerned about Boko Haram’s extremist interpretations of Islam and fear discrimination or persecution under its rule. This internal division weakens community solidarity and fuels resistance to both Boko Haram and the government, creating layers of conflict even among people of the same faith.
A critical political factor is the loss of faith in the Nigerian government by some Muslim leaders. Feeling neglected or betrayed by state authorities, these leaders have chosen to support Boko Haram, believing the group can better represent their interests. This support provides Boko Haram with local legitimacy and resources, strengthening their position and prolonging the conflict.
Furthermore, Nigeria’s porous borders with neighboring countries have made the conflict harder to contain. When pursued by government forces, Boko Haram fighters escape across borders, evade capture, and regroup. This cross-border movement enables the insurgency to persist and destabilizes the entire region, making military efforts ineffective and prolonging the war.
Corruption in the Nigerian government also plays a significant role. Mismanagement of funds, bribery, and political favoritism have undermined public trust in state institutions. As a result, communities affected by poverty and neglect are more likely to view Boko Haram as a better alternative, supporting the group either out of desperation or hope for change.
Lastly, the unfair distribution of state resources has marginalized rural communities, leaving them without access to basic services, education, or infrastructure. Feeling abandoned and excluded from national development, many in these areas align with Boko Haram, seeing the group as a vehicle to challenge the status quo and demand attention from the government.
In summary, the conflict in Nigeria is caused by a combination of extremist ideology, religious divisions, political disillusionment, poor governance, and social inequality. Each factor feeds into the next, creating a cycle of violence and mistrust that sustains Boko Haram’s influence and deepens the crisis.
Religion Studies Grade 12 |Paper 1 | Study Guide | Notes | Past Exam Papers | Memo 3
The conflict in northern Nigeria remains highly volatile and unstable. Boko Haram continues to pose a serious threat to security and public safety in the region. One of the most alarming developments is their targeting of schools, where they have kidnapped large numbers of school children. These abductions have forced many schools to close down out of fear for students’ safety, depriving young people of education and deepening the crisis.
In many cases, Boko Haram demands huge ransom payments from the government or families in exchange for the release of the kidnapped children. This tactic not only finances their operations but also spreads fear among communities, discouraging resistance against the group.
The Nigerian government is struggling to provide adequate security for its citizens. Despite military efforts, attacks by Boko Haram continue unabated, leading many to feel unprotected and abandoned by state authorities. This lack of effective security weakens public trust in the government’s ability to resolve the conflict.
There are also widespread suspicions among community members that some security forces are collaborating with rival groups or acting corruptly. This belief further erodes confidence in law enforcement and creates feelings of betrayal and frustration, making it harder for communities to cooperate with the authorities.
In addition, the level of poverty remains extremely high in many states, especially in rural areas. This poverty fuels the insurgency by creating desperation and making young people vulnerable to recruitment by Boko Haram, who may offer them food, protection, or money in exchange for loyalty.
Overall, the situation in northern Nigeria remains complex and dangerous, as the ongoing violence, insecurity, mistrust in authorities, and poverty continue to sustain the conflict and hinder long-term peace efforts.
The following practical steps can be undertaken by religious organisations o resolve the conflict.
Religious organisations must unite and bring together state governors, national policymakers, and civic leaders to design and implement inclusive policies that mitigate violence. By building partnerships with these key stakeholders, religious organisations can create spaces where different groups work collaboratively to address the underlying causes of violence and promote peaceful coexistence. Inclusive policies can help reduce feelings of marginalisation and ensure that all communities feel represented and protected.
In addition to working with leaders, religious organisations must establish community-oriented security structures. These structures should focus on involving local communities in their own safety efforts, building trust between citizens and security forces, and providing early warning systems to prevent attacks. Such grassroots approaches empower communities and make them active participants in their own protection.
To coordinate peace efforts at a national level, religious organisations must establish a National Peace Committee, including Interfaith Action for Peace in Africa (IFAPA). This committee can serve as a platform for dialogue, reconciliation, and planning, ensuring that peacebuilding efforts are organised and sustainable across the country. An important function of this committee will be to hold high-level dialogue between major civic groups, Boko Haram, and the Nigerian government. Creating opportunities for conversation between these groups is essential for addressing grievances, building trust, and negotiating pathways to peace.
Beyond institutional structures, religious organisations must form a network of Nigerian professionals who will work as mediators in communal conflicts. These professionals can use their skills in conflict resolution and negotiation to prevent small disputes from escalating and to help communities settle differences peacefully. By having trained mediators available, communities can resolve tensions before they turn into violent confrontations.
At the same time, religious organisations must also preach peace in their religious gatherings. Faith leaders have significant influence over their followers, and their messages can encourage forgiveness, reconciliation, and non-violence. By consistently promoting peace from the pulpit, religious leaders can shift attitudes and behaviours towards peaceful coexistence.
Finally, religious organisations must focus on practical support, such as medical supply, shelters for victims, and the supply of food. Addressing the physical needs of those affected by the conflict not only alleviates suffering but also demonstrates compassion and solidarity. By providing these forms of assistance, religious organisations help communities recover and rebuild trust in the midst of hardship.
YES.
The past decade has witnessed a sharp increase in violent sectarian or religious tensions because of weak states that are unable to control extremist groups or maintain order. These conflicts range from Islamic extremists waging global jihad to ongoing power struggles between Sunnis and Shi’a Muslims, leading to deep divisions and violence within the Muslim world.
There is still an outbreak of violence between Christians and Muslims in Africa, showing that religious conflicts persist on the continent. A 2018 Minority Rights Group report indicates that mass killings and other atrocities are increasing in both countries affected by war and those not traditionally seen as war zones.
Bloody encounters were recorded in over 50 countries, such as Syria, Iraq, Nigeria, Myanmar, and Pakistan, illustrating the widespread nature of these religious conflicts. Additionally, hostilities against Muslims and Jews also increased across Europe, showing a worrying trend of rising religious intolerance even in developed regions.
Making matters worse, 55 of the world’s 198 countries imposed heightened restrictions on religions, particularly in countries like Egypt, Russia, India, Indonesia, and Turkey, where religious freedom has been limited and tensions exacerbated.
NO
On the other hand, some argue that religious conflicts are not necessarily increasing worldwide. Most countries are democratic, and that reduces the prevalence of conflict, since democracies are generally committed to protecting rights and freedoms. Democratic countries are about good governance and security, which helps to prevent disputes from escalating into violence.
Furthermore, faith-based groups have also frequently led the way in shaping international treaties and social movements to make the world safer. For example, the Quakers have helped launch treaties banning landmines and other weapons of war, showing the positive role religious groups can play in peace-building efforts.
The Italy’s Sant-Egidio movement has supported interfaith dialogue and campaigns to prevent and resolve conflicts and promote reconciliation from Albania to Mozambique, promoting peace across diverse regions. Likewise, Islamic Relief have long supported mediation and reconciliation activities in war-torn communities, demonstrating that religious organisations can actively work toward peace rather than conflict.
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